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RF Basics
Radio
Frequency (RF) communications is based
on laws of physics that describe the
behavior of electromagnetic energy
waves. For the purpose of providing a
very cursory understanding of the
technology this tutorial will use very
informal terminology to describe what is
happening.
General physics of radio signals
|
RF
communication works by creating
electromagnetic waves at a
source and being able to pick up
those electromagnetic waves at a
particular destination. These
electromagnetic waves travel
through the air at near the
speed of light. The wavelength
of an electromagnetic signal is
inversely proportional to the
frequency; the higher the
frequency, the shorter the
wavelength.
Frequency is measured in Hertz
(cycles per second) and radio
frequencies are measured in
kilohertz (KHz or thousands of
cycles per second), megahertz
(MHz or millions of cycles per
second) and gigahertz (GHz or
billions of cycles per second).
Higher frequencies result in
shorter wavelengths. The
wavelength for a 900 MHz device
is longer than that of a 2.4 GHz
device.
In general, signals with longer
wavelengths travel a greater
distance and penetrate through,
and around objects better than
signals with shorter
wavelengths. |
How
does an RF communication system work?
|
Imagine an RF transmitter
wiggling an electron in one
location. This wiggling electron
causes a ripple effect, somewhat
akin to dropping a pebble in a
pond. The effect is an
electromagnetic (EM) wave that
travels out from the initial
location resulting in electrons
wiggling in remote locations. An
RF receiver can detect this
remote electron wiggling.
The RF communication system then
utilizes this phenomenon by
wiggling electrons in a specific
pattern to represent
information. The receiver can
make this same information
available at a remote location;
communicating with no wires.
In most wireless systems, a
designer has two overriding
constraints: it must operate
over a certain distance (range)
and transfer a certain amount of
information within a time frame
(data rate). Then the economics
of the system must work out
(price) along with acquiring
government agency approvals
(regulations and licensing).
|
How is
range determined?
In
order to accurately compute
range – it is essential to
understand a few terms:
-
dB -
Decibels
Decibels are
logarithmic units that are
often used to represent RF
power. To convert from watts
to dB: Power in dB = 10*
(log x) where x is the power
in watts.
Another unit of measure that
is encountered often is dBm
(dB milliwatts). The
conversion formula for it is
Power in dBm = 10* (log x)
where x is the power in
milliwatts.
-
Line-of-site (LOS)
Line-of-site
when speaking of RF means
more than just being able to
see the receiving antenna
from the transmitting
antenna. In, order to have
true line-of-site no objects
(including trees, houses or
the ground) can be in the
Fresnel zone. The Fresnel
zone is the area around the
visual line-of-sight that
radio waves spread out into
after they leave the
antenna. This area must be
clear or else signal
strength will weaken.
There are essentially two
parameters to look at when
trying to determine range.
-
Transmit Power
Transmit
power refers to the amount
of RF power that comes out
of the antenna port of the
radio. Transmit power is
usually measured in Watts,
milliwatts or dBm. (For
conversion between watts and
dB see below.)
-
Receiver sensitivity
Receiver
sensitivity refers to the
minimum level signal the
radio can demodulate. It is
convenient to use an example
with sound waves; Transmit
power is how loud someone is
yelling and receive
sensitivity would be how
soft a voice someone can
hear. Transmit power and
receive sensitivity together
constitute what is know as
“link budget”. The link
budget is the total amount
of signal attenuation you
can have between the
transmitter and receiver and
still have communication
occur.
Example:
TX Power:
20dBm
RX Sensitivity: -110dBm
Total Link budget: 130dBm.
For line-of-site situations,
a mathematical formula can
be used to figure out the
approximate range for a
given link budget. For non
line-of-site applications
range calculations are more
complex because of the
various ways the signal can
be attenuated.
|
Regulations and licensing
|
The
Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) and other
regulatory bodies around the
world have set up a series of
regulations defining the
emission levels and usage for
all the different frequencies.
Wireless Integrated radios
operate within the Industrial,
Scientific and Medical (ISM)
bands that offer license free
operation within certain
frequencies. Within the United
States, the most popular ISM
band are at 902-928 MHz and 2.4
– 2.4835 GHz. Portions of the
902-928 MHz band are also
available in Canada, Mexico,
Australia and Israel. The 2.4
GHz band is generally more
accepted worldwide.
At certain power levels some
regulatory agencies require some
form of spread spectrum. Spread
spectrum can either be done by
frequency hopping or by direct
sequence. Frequency hopping
consists of rapidly moving from
one channel to the next while
maintaining synchronization with
the receiver. Direct Sequence is
more complex, but works by
slicing the carrier up with a
code that can be decoded at the
other end. Wireless Integrated
radios uses frequency hopping as
its method of spread spectrum.
|
RF
communications and data rate
|
Data
rates are usually dictated by
the system - how much data must
be transferred and how often
does the transfer need to take
place. Lower data rates, allow
the radio module to have better
receive sensitivity and thus
more range. In the RF modules
the 9600 baud module has 3dB
more sensitivity than the 19200
baud module. This means about
30% more distance in
line-of-sight conditions. Higher
data rates allow the
communication to take place in
less time, potentially using
less power to transmit.
|
More information about RFID
http://www.rfid-product.com |
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